Teori Psikologi

Teori psikologi

Teori pertumbuhan
Teori pertumbuhan adalah yang memusatkan pikiran pada uang kembalian tentang waktu. Teori pertumbuhan mempertimbangkan tak pertumbuhan konsep teoretis seperti ID, Perhatian gambaran Jiwa juga. Tetapi mereka berbeda dari tak pertumbuhan teori dengan menekankan ganti tentang waktu di konsep ini.

Keprihatinan ini dengan hadiah ganti teori pertumbuhan dengan tiga tugas
1, untuk menggambarkan ganti dalam sesuatu atau beberapa bidang kelakuan
• teori pertumbuhan menggambarkan ganti tentang waktu di sesuatu atau beberapa bidang kelakuan atau aktivitas psikologis seperti pemikiran, bahasa, sosial kelakuan atau persepsi. Misalnya, teori mungkin menggambarkan ganti di peraturan tatabahasa yang mendasari bahasa di yang pertama sedikit tahun hidup. Walaupun teori pertumbuhan mengurus ganti tekanan dalam bulan-bulan atau tahun-tahun teori memadai pada akhirnya harus menggambarkan ganti dalam detik-detik, menit-menit dan hari-hari.

2, untuk menggambarkan ganti di kerabat di antara beberapa bidang kelakuan.
• A detik tugas karena teori perkembangan akan menggambarkan ganti tentang waktu di kerabat di antara kelakuan atau aspek aktivitas psikologis dalam satu bidang perkembangan dan ideal, di antara beberapa bidang perkembangan. Mencoba menangani ganti bersamaan di pemikiran, kepribadian dan persepsi yang kami patuhi. Teoretikus pertumbuhan ialah berspesialisasi dalam generalists di itu mereka tahu banyak sekitar banyak bidang psikologi tetapi mereka berspesialisasi dalam pendekatan pertumbuhan ke belajar bidang puas ini. Di kasus konsep benda yang digambarkan di atas, mungkin gambar teori bagaimana konsep menghubungkan ke children’s berkembang kenangan sistem dan hubungan sosial mereka dengan satu benda khusus, ibu mereka. Teori akan memperlihatkan garis bentuk kerabat keduniaan di antara bidang perkembangan ini.
3, untuk menerangkan jalan perkembangan yang sudah digambarkan
• Even If teori menyediakan deskripsi penuh perkembangan, tidak menerangkan peralihan dari titik untuk menunjukkan selama perkembangan. Dengan begitu tugas ketiga untuk teori pertumbuhan akan menerangkan jalan perkembangan yang digambarkan oleh dua tugas lain. Sebenarnya, urutan dan persetujuan yang dikenali di dua tugas yang pertama sering menyiratkan adanya keterangan khusus. Jika ketrampilan B selalu muncul sesaat sesudah perkembangan ketrampilan, seorang psikolog mungkin berhipotesis bahwa sebab B. With rasa hormat sampai tugas ketiga, teori pertumbuhan menawarkan seset asas atau peraturan umum untuk uang kembalian. Asas ini menetapkan pendahulu perlu dan mencukupi untuk masing-masing ganti dan mengenali variabel yang mengubah atau memodulasi laju atau sifat masing-masing ganti. Misalnya Freud melamar bahwa yang biologis mendasarkan naik mobil “move” dari ujian lisan sampai luas anal dan bahwa tingkat child’s mengiringi kegelisahan bergantung agak di parents’ anak mengangkat latihan. Lagi, asas uang kembalian berhipotesis seset proses karena menghasilkan ganti. Proses ini sudah sebermacam-macam sedinamik equillibration di Piaget’s teori, pematangan Fisik di teori Freudian dan Ethological, dan memperkuat jawaban oleh penguatan dalam mempelajari teori.

Contributions of Developmental Theories
1. It organizes and gives meaning to facts of development:
a. A theory gives meaning to facts, provides a framework for facts, assigns more importance to some facts than others and integrates existing facts.
2. It guides further research:
a. It is a heuristic devise, a tool to guide observation and to generate new information. A theory’s abstract statements predict that certain empirical statements should be true. These empirical statements then must be tested. In addition to organizing and giving meaning to a variety of previous research findings, this theory has led investigators to examine the roles of attention and structure of objects and events in perceptual development.
b. This theory stimulated developmental psychologists to search for innate social behaviours that have contributed to the adaptation of the species to the environment. Theories not only stimulate new observations, but in some cases, also cause us to reexamine familiar behaviour and pay more attention to variables we have slighted. Piaget certainly was not the first person to watch babies play. But, he suggested a new way of looking at this behaviour. The actions themselves are creating thought according to Piaget.

There are four modes of theory construction.
1. The Model
A model is a framework, structure or system that has been developed in one field and is then applied to another usually less well-developed field. The model stands for or represents something other than itself. It serves as an analogy or a metaphor to guide research and thinking. Examples are the early image of the nervous system as a telephone switch board or the eye as a camera and the later notion of an instinct as a hydraulic system. More recently, thinking has been linked to an equilibration system (Piaget) or a computer (information processing approach).
In current usage the term model has been used in another way that should not be confused with the use of the term here. Model sometimes replaces theory and connotes an undertaking that is more specific and limited than a general theory.
2. Deductive Theory
The earlier description of a formal theory refers to the deductive type of theory. A deductive theory is a logically organized set of propositions stated in a formal way. These propositions include basic assumptions and definitions from which are deduced further propositions. There is a two way relation between data and theory in that theoretical propositions are continually tested and the results in turn modify the theory. Deductive theories are attractive because they are elegant and spell out all assumptions and implications of these assumptions. Deductive theories are vulnerable simply because they cannot hide anything.
3. Functional theory
Most present day theory constructions fall into this category. It is much more informal and modest than deductive theory. Its propositions are closely related to data and are often restricted to a particular experimental problem. There is a continual rapid interplay between theory and data. General statements or hypotheses are suggested by a set of research findings. These general statements and their implications are then tested by further research; the general statements are then modified and the process continues.
For example, one might choose smiling infancy as an experimental problem. A first hypothesis might be that recognition of an object causes smiling. Research, however, may show that this hypothesis is true only for certain ages and particular types of situations and the hypothesis is continually refined through modification and further testing.

4. Inductive Theory
An inductive theory consists of descriptive statements that summarise sets of data. Little inference is involved. An inductive theorist is someone who demands “just the facts”. A one-way relation holds between data and theory- data lead to theory. Inductive theorists argue that collecting facts unbiased by interpretation eventually leads to statements that tie the data together. The best current example of inductive theory is Skinners operant conditioning theory.

These four modes of theory construction demonstrate that theories can generate research either by analogy as in the model or by deduction as in deductive and functional theories. Data in turn generate theories by induction, test the deductions of specific models that are derived from theories and ultimately modify theories except in the case of general models. Empirical observation can never completely prove that a theory is true because future observations could provide disconfirming evidence.
The history of science shows that there may be a considerable lag between the gathering of data and the production of a theory. Data may not immediately suggest a particular theory. Darwin’s “Origin of Species” was published more than twenty years after his voyage on the ‘HMS Beagle’. It took Kepler over thirty years to produce the three laws of planetary motion.
The four types of theories vary in how far the empirical observations are from the theoretical statements. Functional and inductive theories are closer to the data than deductive theories or models. For example, a learning theorist might refer to ‘stimulus’, ‘response’, and ‘punishment’- terms that are very close to observable objects or events. At the other extreme Freud’s ‘unconscious’ or Piaget’s ‘equilibration process’ bears at the best, an uncertain and distant relationship to observable behaviour. The distance between theory and behaviour is of considerable importance for two reasons.
1. The greater this distance, the more difficult it is to either support or weaken the theory. Much of scientific progress comes from showing that particular theories are wrong and correcting them. If a theory is so far from possible data that it can be neither confirmed nor disconfirmed (even in future), it is of little value for science.
2. The farther the distance between data and theory, the greater will be the number of theories that can be produced to explain the same set of facts. Sometimes theories are retained for long periods because their central claims are so far from possible observations that they cannot be tested and refuted.

There are four main critical issues in developmental psychology
1. What is the basic nature of humans?
2. Is development qualitative or quantitative?
3. How do nature and nurture contribute to development?
4. What is it that develops?

Basic Human Nature
There have been three basic worldviews of great relevance to the study of psychology. (Overton, 1984; Reese, 1991)- the mechanistic, the organismic and the contextual.

In the mechanistic view, the world is like a machine composed of parts that operate in time and space. Mechanistic view has its roots in Newtonian physics. It is also related to the empiricist philosophy of Locke (1632-1704) and Hume (1711-1776) which pictures the humans as inherently at rest – a passive robot motivated by external sources.

The organismic world view is modeled on living systems such as plants and animals rather than machines. This image derives from Leibniz (1646-1716) who believed that substance is in a continuous transition from one state to another as it produces these states out of itself in unceasing succession (Cassirer, 1951). Leibniz pictured the world as composed of organized wholes that are inherently and spontaneously active and self- regulating. This organization is necessary or natural, given the nature of the organism. Rather than looking for antecedent causes as the mechanistic worldview has done, the organismic view considers inherent properties and goals. The human by nature is an active organized whole and is constantly changing, not randomly, but in a particular direction. Development, then, is inherent in humans.

According to the Contextual worldview, a behaviour has meaning (and can be explained) only in terms of its social historical context. The pragmatist philosophers such as William James and George Herbert Mead provide the philosophical inspiration.

We need developmental theories. They help us describe and explain developmental changes by organizing and giving meaning to facts and by guiding further research.

MAIN DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES (relating to personality)

Piaget - Cognitive Stage Theory is widely known as theory of cognitive development.

Freud – Psycho Analytic Theory
(These two theories are known as giant theories of developmental psychology)

Erikson – Theory of Psycho Social Development also known as Stage Theory

Alfred Bandura – Social Learning Theory now called Social Cognitive Theory

Information Processing Theory

Ethological Theory

Gibson’s Perceptual Developmental Theory

Vygotsky’s Theory and the Contextualists